CNS186-motion1-01/23/08
 
Motion Psychophysics(1): A Dynamic Overview
(Shinsuke Shimojo)
 
 
1. Motion as a fundamental visual dimension
 
-Which comes first?
  Engineer's view:
     static snapshots -->dynamic image processing
Psychologist's view:
    dynamic perception --> static perception
-Motion as a visual module
    Paradox in the waterfall illusion
    Motion-selective neurons (Barlow, 1963)
    Motion blindness (Zihl, von Cramon, & Mai, 1983)
    Psychophysics (Nakayama & Tyler, 1981)
    Modelling (Reichardt, 1961)
 
Motion sensation is not a secondary product of space & time, and it is a separate and independent visual process.
 
 
2. Functional benefits of image motion processing
What is the biological function of motion perception?
"To identify velocity of moving object" is a very insufficient answer, as listed below  
  (Nakayama, 1984).
 
(1)Encoding of the third dimension
-Surface in depth (Rogers & Graham, 1979) and the issue of cues
-Motion parallax (Kitazaki & Shimojo, 1996)
-Kinetic depth effect (Wallach & O'Connell, 1953)
 
(2)Time to collision(TTC)
-Accurate judgment on time of collision, without information (Lee, 1976)
 
(3)Image segmentation
-Common Fate (Koffka, 1926)
-Anti-camoflage (Julesz, 1971)
 
(4)Motion as a proprioceptive sense (Gibson, 1954)
-Development (Lee & Aronson, 1974)
-Optical Flow (Nakayama & Loomis, 1974; van Dooren & Koenderink, 1986)
-Heading perception (Gibson, 1966; Banks, et al., 1996)
 
(5)Motion as a stimulus to drive eye movements
-Vergence/pursuit as independent mechanisms (Hering's observation; Rashbass, 1961)
 
(6)Motion as required for pattern vision
-Stablized image (Riggs, Ratliff, Cornsweet & Cornsweet, 1953)
-Tradeoff with spatial frequency (Kelly, 1979)
 
(7)Perceiving real moving objects
-We do not perceive retinal motion as object motion (pursuit eye movement of retinal
  afterimage; Yasui & Young, 1975)
-Retinal motion vs. conscious perception of motion
-Illusory differential motion in RDS (Tyler, 1974)
 
Note that to perceive movement of object is just a small fraction of the biological functions.
 
 
3. Taxonomy
 
-Real / apparent
-Short range / long range (Anstis, 1980; Cavanagh, 1991)
-1st order / 2nd order /3rd order (Werkhoben, Sperling & Chubb, 1993)

1st: based on luminance-contrast, Fourier energy

2nd: based on features/saliency, analogous to 1st

3rd : based on attentive tracking
  cf. selective motion aftereffect (Nishida & Sato, 1993)
-Fourier / non-fourier
-Active / passive (Cavanagh, 1992)
 
 
4. Integration and segregation
 
-Random-dot kinematogram(RDK; B. Julesz)
-Dmax(=15 arc min.) (Braddick, 1974)
-Dmin(=5 arc sec) (Nakayama & Tyler, 19841)
-Temporal integration (Nakayama & Silverman, 1984)
-Spatial integration: Relative motion and cortical magnification (Murakami & Shimojo,
  1993, 1995, 1996)
-Motion in depth (Regan & Bevery, 1973)
-Attenuation of motion in equiluminant condition (Ramachandran & Gregory, 1978)
-Motion capture (Ramachandran & Cavanagh, 1987)
 
 
5. Ambiguity and higher-order
 
-Aperture problem (Ullman & Hildreth, 1983)
   Sneak effect (Hildreth, 1983; Nakayama & Silverman, 1983)
-Slit view (Parks, 1965; Shimojo & Richards, 1985)
-Relation to attention (Chaundri, 1990; Hikosaka, Miyauchi & Shimojo, 1993a, b)
-Structure from motion (Ullman, 1979)
  Motion defines contours and structures, not just vice versa.
-Biomotion (Johansson, 1973)
    Development of biomotion perception (Berthenthal, et al., 1984)
 
 
 
References
 
Banks, M., Ehrlich, S., Backus, B., & Crowell, J. (1996) Estimating heading during real and
  simulated eye movements. Vision Research, 36, 431-443.
Bertenthal, B., Profitt, D. R., & Cutting, J. E. (1984) Infant sensitivity to figural coherence
  in biomechanical motions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37, 213-230.
Chaudhuri, A. (1990) Modulation of the motion aftereffect by selective attention.
  Nature, 344, 60-62.
Cavanagh, P. (1991) Short-range vs long-range motion: Not a valid distinction. Spatial
  Vision, 5, 303-309.
Cavanagh, P. (1992) Attention-based motion perception. Science, 257, 1563-1565.
Hikosaka, O., Miyauchi, S. and Shimojo, S. (1993) Voluntary and stimulus-induced
  attention detected as motion sensation.  Perception, 22, 517-526, 1993.
Hikosaka, O., Miyauchi, S. and Shimojo, S. Focal visual attention produces illusory
  temporal order and motion sensation.  Vision Research, 33, 1219-1240, 1993.
Murakami, I., & Shimojo, S. (1993) Motion capture changes to induced motion at higher
  luminance contrasts, smaller eccentricities, and larger inducer sizes. Vision Research,
  33, 2091-2107.
Murakami, I., & Shimojo, S. (1995) Modulation of motion aftereffect by surround motion
  and its dependence on stimulus size and eccentricity. Vision Research, 35, 1835-1844.
Murakami, I., & Shimojo, S. (1996) Assimilation-type and contrast-type bias of motion
  induced by the surround in a random-dot display: evidence for center-surround
  antagonism. Vision Research, 36, 3629-3639.
Nakayama, K. (1985) Biological image motion processing: A review. Vision Research, 25,
  625-660.
Nishida, S. & Sato, T. (1993) Two kinds of motion aftereffect reveal different types of
  motion processing. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 34, 1363.
Lee, D. N., and Aronson, E. (1974) Visual proprioceptive control of standing in human
  infants. Perception & Psychophysics, 15, 529-532.
Johansson, G. (1973) Visual perception of biomotion and a model for its analysis.
  Perception & Psychophysics, 1973, 14, 202-211.
Werkhoben, P., Sperling, G. & Chubb, C. (1993) Vision Research, 33, 463-485.
(Note: Most of references older than 1984 are included in Nakayama(1984).)